Uys, P.M.
(1998, April). Managing Tertiary
Education in a Global Virtual Environment: Networked Educational Management.
Proceedings of Towards the Global University II: Redefining Excellence in the
Third Millennium Conference.
Dr
Philip Uys
Senior
Lecturer and Director: hydi Educational New Media Centre
Tel: +64-4-8012794 ext 8926 Fax: +64-4-8012692
E-mail: philip.uys@globe-online.com
Personal
homepage: http://www.globe-online.com/philip.uys
Invitation
If you need assistance in the strategic implementation of
e-Learning (networked education/distributed learning) in your institute, you
are welcome to contact philip.uys@globe-online.com to discuss your needs.
ABSTRACT
Many conventional tertiary educational
institutions have been incorporating Internet and intranet-based (networked)
education. Entirely virtual universities are emerging. Networked education
naturally leads to participation in the global educational arena as it is based
on the Internet. What are the implications for academic, administrative and
student management when embracing networked education? Some argue that
networked education is essentially an alternative delivery mode and its management
is thus no different than that of other modes. Others posit that networked
education is a new educational paradigm and a response to the educational needs
of the emerging information society, in the same way as the traditional class
was a response to the educational needs of the industrial society. Management
of networked education is therefore fundamentally different from conventional
educational management particularly in a global environment. This view
correlates with new forms of private enterprise management including management
of the learning organisation, the information-based organisation and the
networked organisation. The writer proposes a new form of tertiary educational
management for the operations of networked education in a global environment: networked
educational management. The following dimensions of networked educational
management are discussed: networking, globalisation, its flexibility and
boundary orientation.
Table of Contents |
"…
as soon as a company takes the first tentative steps from data to information,
its decision processes, management structure, and even the way it gets its work
done begin to be transformed."
Peter
Drucker (1998, p. 100).
The widespread implementation of Internet and
intranet-based education (networked education) in tertiary education globally
necessitates a careful consideration of appropriate corresponding academic,
administrative and student management approaches. Networked education are being
implemented on an exponential scale due to its flexibility, its links to the
emerging culture of post-modernism (Hartley, 1995), potential to increase the
cost-effectiveness of delivery (Romiszowski, 1993, June) and quality of
learning (Uys, 1998) and its pertinence as an appropriate educational response
to globalisation and in addressing the increase in the world demand for
tertiary education (Daniel, 1998). Tiffin (1996b, November) believes that the
"...concept of the virtual class is the kernel of a new educational
paradigm that matches the needs of an information society" (p. 1). Tiffin
further states that the "... networked education is an information
technology system for education and training which could become to an
information society what the conventional classroom is to an industrial
society, the core communication system for preparing people for the society
they live in" (Tiffin, 1996 February, p. 2).
A fundamental difference between networked
education and conventional face-to-face or distance education is that it relies
on a telecommunication infrastructure rather than a transport infrastructure to
bring together the essential elements of education (Tiffin, 199b November) and
provide a new level of connectivity within the educational process. Networked
education therefore deal primarily with the movement of bits of information
rather than with the movement of atoms (Negroponte, 1995).
The term "management" is used
in a broad sense to describe planning, organising, leading and control (Boone and
Kurtz, 1984); Newman, Warren and McGill, 1987; Schultheis and Sumner, 1989) on
all levels of a tertiary educational institute. There has been a clear and
consistent call from prominent writers on management and organisational design
like Drucker (1985, 1989, 1995), Senge (1990), Peters (1988), Marquard (1996),
Tapscott (1996), Limerick and Cunnington (1993) that these functions of
management are to be practiced in an entirely new way in the context of the
emerging global information or knowledge society.
Tapscott (1996) states that "It is fairly
widely accepted that the developed world is changing from an industrial economy
based on steel, automobiles, and roads to a new economy built on silicon,
computers and networks. Many people talk of shift in economic relationships
that’s as significant as the previous displacement of the agricultural
age by the industrial age" (p. 43). Peters (1993) contends that "the
definite shifts described indicate that the organisation of the learning
process in the post-industrial society might become entirely different in many
ways" (p. 53).
Rayport and Sviokla (1995) argue that every
organisation (including educational organisations) "...today competes in
two worlds: a physical world of resources that managers can see and touch [the
"place"] and a virtual world made of information [the
"space"]" (p. 75). They illustrate and argue that these
"...two value adding processes are fundamentally different" and that
"...a company’s executives must embrace an updated set of guiding
principles because in the marketspace many of the business axioms that have
guided managers no longer apply" (p.83).
Paul (1990) posits that an institution that is
dedicated to the values and practice of open learning needs to have an
"open management style" (p. 72). Thomas, Carswell, Price and Petre
(1998) argues for the "…transformation of practices (both teaching
and administrative) to take advantage of technology in order to provide needed
functions, rather than superficial translation of existing practices".
Bates (1999) contends that the introduction of networked education
"…will mean a thorough re-examination of the core practices of the
organisation, from advertizing to registration to design and delivery of
materials to student support to assessment of students, in order to analyse the
most effective way of providing these services in a networked, multimedia
environment."
Drucker (1989) constructs an analogy between the
introduction of computers in education and that of the book, and argues that a
revolution in education based on the underlying technologies is occurring:
"The printed book, fiercely resisted by the schoolmasters of the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries, did not triumph until the Jesuits and Comenius created
schools based on it in the late seventeenth century. From the beginning the
printed book forced the schools however to change drastically how they were
teaching…. We are in the early stages of a similar technological
revolution, and perhaps an even bigger one" (p. 243).
This paper argues that the management of
networked education is fundamentally different from conventional educational
management particularly in a global environment. A new kind of educational
management is required in tertiary education for managing the operations of networked
education on the strategic (long terms issues), tactical (dealing with
allocation of resources) and operational (day to day operations) levels of
management.
This paper is based on the action research
findings of the hydi Educational New Media Centre (Uys, April 1998; Uys, July
1999) in implementing networked education since September 1995 at Massey
University, and on case studies in other countries. This paper presents some
aspect s of the writer's doctorate research of the last four years (Uys, 2000).
2. Conventional educational management
"The
historic continuity of the institution is unbroken, and many of the medieval
university’s unique features remain characteristic of today’s
universities: features, for example, such as … structures of governance,
such as the division of major branches of learning into faculties, and the
hierarchical positions such as deans, chancellor and rector"
G. Patterson (1997, p. 7)
Garrison (1989) points to higher education when
contending that as "…formal education grew in size and complexity,
bureaucracies became the controlling mechanism" (p. 38). In contrast to
the institutional management structures, the teaching and research functions of
academic staff as professionals are typically more client oriented, less formal
and less concerned with hierarchy (Paul, 1990). While institutional
conventional educational management operates on a largely bureaucratic model,
academic staff operate on a "collegial model" (Paul, 1990. p. 32).
The anarchic model (Cohen and March, 1974) depicts the modern university as an
organised anarchy which, according to Paul (1990) illustrates such ambiguities
and uncertainties that it renders the traditional forms of management
meaningless or inept (p. 37). It seems however that the bureaucratic elements
of conventional tertiary education are pre-eminent and also in constant
conflict to the self-management ideals and processes of academic staff.
This description of management in conventional
tertiary education aligns itself clearly to what Burns and Stalker (1961) call
a mechanistic control process in contrast to an organic control
process. The mechanistic management structure links with a stable external
environment. According to Daft (1989, p.61) in this structure tasks are broken
down in specialized, separate parts; tasks are rigidly defined; there is a
strict hierarchy of authority and control, and there are many rules; knowledge
and control of tasks are centralized at the top of organization and
communication is vertical.
The management model on organisational level in
conventional tertiary education is one of tension between a centralised
administrative approach and a decentralised academic approach in which the
centralised, bureaucratic and hierarchical dimensions seem to be pre-eminent.
The generic conventional management paradigm in
tertiary education can be described as being largely mechanistic, formal,
centralised, focussing predominantly on the local environment, insular,
inflexible, rigid, bureaucratised, with strong institutional control and
segmented, with a high degree of division of labour, variable participation,
and often politicised.
3. New forms of educational management
In view
of the new technologies and the emergence of the information age, education
"…is
experiencing a shift from formal, centralised, and segmented operations to
increasingly complex, decentralised, and integrated levels of organisation"
D.R.
Garrison (1989, p. 38).
Rumble (1992) refers to the operations of
distance education as a "highly distributed system" which "looks
very different to the residential or non-residential campus-based university"
(p. 95). Garrison points to the potential of computer based distance education
to transcend the barrier to "…both decentralise education and
individualise or personalise it at the same time" (p. 88). Peters (1993)
contends that in the post-industrial society there will be in distance teaching
institutions a "departure from a highly centralized organisation of the
teaching-learning process and a move to small decentralized units which can be
made transparent by the means of new technology" (p. 53). Forsythe (1984)
contends: "…. the use of such communication systems is seen as part
of a large learning system that may well be a network of institutions" (p.
60).
Paul (1990) suggests that a value-driven
leadership approach can address the different models of educational management
and that in this approach, leadership is committed to ensure that people find
meaning in life through their work by creating things of value (p. 68). Paul
argues that an institution that is dedicated to the values and practice of open
learning needs to have an "open management style" (p. 72) and that
"those responsible for the leadership and management of these institutions
must emulate the principles they espouse in the performance of their day-to-day
activities" (p.22).
4. New forms of private enterprise management
"Networks
of networks along the Internet model are beginning to break down walls among
companies — suppliers, customers, affinity groups, and competitors. We
will see the rise of internetworked business, internetworked government,
internetworked learning, and internetworked health care…"
Don
Tapscott (1996, p. 55).
Aspects like the globalisation of education, the
role of private enterprise in tertiary education and pressures on the funding
base impel tertiary institutes to increasingly operate in ways that closely
resemble private enterprise. At the same time private enterprise is concerned
with, and heavily involved in education (Drucker, 1989, p. 243; Garrision,
1989, p. 38). Drucker (1998) asserts that the "…need to organize for
change also requires a high degree of decentralization" in the structure
of the "new society of organisations" (p. 117). Beare and Slaughter
(1993) contend that "… a business which operates on bureaucratic
lines cannot compete in a post-industrial economy…" (p. 35). Peters
(1988a) highlight the importance of boundary management in the organisation of
the future in which the boundaries are described as wavy, thin and transparent.
Marquardt (1996) describes the learning organisation as being
"boundaryless" (p. 83).
Burns and Stalker (1961) indicate that an organic
control process, in contrast to a mechanistic control process, is
coupled with an unstable external environment. According to Daft (1989, p.61)
in this structure, which is appropriate for the modern organisation operating
in a turbulent environment, employees contribute to the common tasks of the
department; tasks are adjusted and redefined through employee interactions;
there is less hierarchy of authority and control, and there are few rules;
knowledge and control of tasks are located anywhere in the organisation;
communication is horizontal. Two major transformations (or megatrends) in
society are a transformation from centralisation to decentralisation (in effect
distribution) and from hierarchies to networking (Naisbitt, 1982, p. 1).
Marquardt (1996) contends that in this
"…faster, information-thick atmosphere of the new millennium…
‘old’ companies [cannot] compete with more agile and creative
learning organisations" (p. xv). A learning organisation has a
streamlined, flat hierarchy and is seamless and boundaryless (p. 83). It is
further built on networking and "…realize the need to collaborate,
share, and synergize with resources both inside and outside the company…
they provide a company with a form and style that is fluid, flexible, and
adaptable" (p. 84).
The characteristics of the management required
in tertiary education to match the educational needs of the information or
knowledge society include being complex, decentralised or distributed,
networking of peers, personalised delivery, deals with networking and
collaboration internally and with other institutes, increased boundary
management, and an integration of on- and off-campus learning and is highly adaptive
and flexible in a volatile external environment.
Conventional management of tertiary education
struggles between the desperate need to reform its management because of the
external and internal environment but is often ineffective to do this because
of its current management approaches. It seems from the above that the
inefficiency of the current models of managing conventional tertiary education
calls for a meta-model or a new management paradigm to transcend the
discrepancies between these management models.
5.
Networked educational management
The writer proposes a new educational management
paradigm for managing the operations of networked education: networked
educational management. Networked educational management incorporates the
key elements of the new forms of private enterprise and educational management.
This term is chosen since a central aspect of education in networked education
and the management thereof seems to be the connectivity or networking
that it facilitates often across the boundaries of space and time. This term
correlates with "network management" (Limerick and Cunningham, 1993)
and terms that writers like Tapscott (1996) ("internetworked
organisation"), Beare and Slaughter (1993) ("network organisation"),
" Limerick and Cunningham (1993), ("network organisation"), and
Tapscott and Caston (1993) ("open networked organisation") use when
describing the organisational model for the emerging information age. Drucker
(1995) calls the society in which tertiary education currently operates the
"networked society" (p.65) because of the centrality of networking
with other organisations through alliances, partnerships and outsourcing.
Networked educational management has twelve
dimensions: networking, student focussed, globalisation, transitory,
adaptability, transcending time, market orientation, computer mediation,
collaboration, convergence, boundary orientation and being information based.
The dimensions of networking, globalisation, its flexibility and boundary
orientation are discussed in this paper.
Networked educational management postulates that
a distributed model of management is appropriate for networked education on
both learning and institutional level. Networking is therefore the central
premise of networked educational management. The distributed nature of
networked educational management is based on the new connectivity within
networked education, the distribution of learning and control, the distributed
nature of the Internet and intranets, and the globalisation of education.
Networked educational management has its
control, power and resources distributed throughout the organisation. It links
to an organic control process (Burns and Stalker, 1961) in contrast to a
mechanistic control process, in which "knowledge and control of
tasks are located anywhere in the organisation" (Daft, 1989, p. 61).
Managing the connectivity that networked
education facilitates is a key difference between managing the conventional
class and managing the operations of networked education. It connects or
networks student and student, teacher and student, student and resource,
teacher and resource, past and present independent of geographical or time
differences. The learning control as well as on-line learning and teaching
materials are distributed to both local and distance students using the same
interface (ie a Web browser) because of the convergence of learning modes which
traditionally have been called "distance education" and
"on-campus education" through networked education. This implies that
the management of learning is no longer linked to physical locality
(on-campus/off-campus) but distributed to study networks comprising local,
distance, national and international students, that operate as virtual teams
(Jarvenpaa and Leidner, 1998; Lipnack and Stamps, 1997).
Bates (2000) acknowledges the challenge to
create a congruity between centralised and decentralised management aspirations
in tertiary education: "When it comes to organisational structures, the
challenge is to develop a system that encourages teaching units to be
innovative and able to respond quickly to changes in subject matter, student
needs, and technology. At the same time, redundancy and conflicting standards
and policies across the institution must be avoided" (p. 181). A similar
tension within the organisation of information systems activities and
communications has been transcended in computer and communication systems using
distributed approaches. Networked educational management will ensure conformity
to central principles and values and simultaneously encourage diversity. Active
progression towards networked education opens an institute to the impact of the
distributed nature of the new educational technologies (specifically the
Internet and Intranets).
The globalisation of education may furthermore
necessitate collaboration and partnerships. These partnerships can exist to
ensure the local support of distance students in networked education, to
address accreditation and certification issues or for more effective
participation in networked education. Institutes might therefore find
themselves physically or logically distributed through partnerships and
collaboration with other national and international institutes. This calls for
a distributed management system in education that also addresses
"…the need to interact on learning highways across borders….
all nations, in future, will have to design their educational systems in such a
way that they not only have internal coherence but also have an open
architecture - that they can network with other educational and learning
systems" (Morrison, 1995, p. 199).
"...if
the virtual class was going to be distance independent then like the
information society it was going to be global rather than national"
John
Tiffin (1996, February)
The global nature of networked education is
possible because the new educational technologies facilitate and lead naturally
to the globalisation of education since the central technology in networked
education, is the Internet. Networked education is accessible from anywhere in
the world where access to the Internet is possible (Uys, 1998 April) and is
further information-based (Drucker, 1989, p. 258). The global nature of
networked education means that institutes in tertiary education can project
themselves into a global educational market of providers and students, which
places new demands on management.
Networked educational management through its
global nature also includes the management of relationships with collaboration
and consortium partners and needs to address cultural differences in an
international educational arena.
"The
emerging consensus is that successful Universities of the next millennium will
be those that embrace continuous change as an education paradigm. Such
Universities will be able both to adapt to changes in the social market for
their students and to lead this market in directions optimal to the
society’s goals by continually adapting their education plans, methods
and strategies of teaching, and educational infrastructures to changes in the
environment"
Esquer,
G. N. & Sheremetov, L. (1999, July, p. 1607).
Control is an integral part of management
(Newman, Warren, McGill, 1987) that is hugely impacted by the transitory nature
of the operations of networked education. Tapscott (1996, p. xv) holds that
"Far more than the old western frontier, the digital frontier is a place
of recklessness, confusion, uncertainty, calamity and danger." The
controlling position of the student in networked education and the changing
nature of the student body contribute to an uncontrollability of huge
proportions, which challenges the essence of conventional educational
management. In this paradigmatic shift the focus and control transfers to the
student who can select from various international offerings, access Websites
and people across cultural, national and philosophical boundaries, while
constructing their own learning and meaning through a constructivist
educational approach (Mason, 1998, p. 157). Networked education is further
unbound in space and time and provides students with an enormous flexibility.
The environment in which networked education in
tertiary education occurs at the beginning of the millennium is exceptionally
dynamic and volatile. This can be attributed largely to the emergence of a
global information or knowledge society which many view to be "… as
significant as the previous displacement of the agricultural age by the
industrial age" (Tapscott, 1996, p. 43). Drucker (1989) draws an analogy
between the introduction of computers in education and that of the book, and
contends that a revolution of similar or even greater proportions in education
is occurring. Even the nature of the change process from conventional to
networked education itself is not stable; Morrison (1995) describes the
"process of evolution in terms of dislocations, dilemmas and uncertainties
rather than projections from 'what is' to 'what is needed'." The global
dimension of networked educational management furthermore increases the
boundaries of the institutes using networked education and exposes them to be
impacted by more factors and influences from a turbulent international
environment.
In the emerging information or knowledge
society, education has to contend with an exponential growth of the amount of
information available for use by organisations, governments, businesses and
people. There are estimations that "today information is doubling every
eighteen months and that by the year 2012 it will be doubling every"
(Nugent, 1996, p. 264).
Managing the dynamic nature of on-line materials
require tight change control and quality assurance systems (NOT documentation
systems!) while at the same time addresses the flexibility of on-line materials
that can be changed continuously and immediately which is clearly different
from using other publishing mediums like paper or CD-ROM.
JIT teaching (see 9.6 below), that is teaching
that can change rapidly and immediately based on the needs of students and is
available when students need it (Tiffin and Rajasingham, 1995, p. 154;
Marquard, 1996, p. 177; Mason, 1998, p. 158) calls for the management of teaching
to be particularly adaptive.
The factors above point to a high level of
adaptability that is required in the administrative, academic and technological
management of networked education.
"Competitive
industries are clustered … are linked as customers and suppliers, through
people, research institutions, university programmes and related
diversification. This is typical. It is how a competitive industry is created
and sustained"
Michael
Porter (Caulkin, 1990, p. 53)
Boundary management within the university
environment has become more relevant as "… the external environment
has impinged more directly on university operations..." (Middlehurst,
1993, p. 56). An emphasis on boundary management correlates with the
organisation of the future proposed by Peters (1988a), Tapscott (1996) and Daft
(1989). It also correlates with an "essential element of effective network
management" which is to "develop your boundary roles" (Limerick
and Cunningham, 1993, p. 89).
The extensive use of the Internet in networked
education further leads to an extension of the boundaries of an
organisation’s academic and administrative systems. Networking now often
transcends national boundaries so that the Global Alliance for Transnational
Education (GATE, 1999) describes the current educational environment as the
"…new borderless educational arena". This correlates to one of
Fullan’s (1991) six themes of educational change namely "From going
it alone to alliances".
A major boundary management issue in networked
education is to provide adequate access to courses. There are initiatives to
address this like Cybercafes, Internet access in public spaces like libraries,
arranging adequate on-campus computer access, collaboration with other
educational institutes to provide access to remote student as well as
Telecentres which are widely used in Australia and Europe and growing in Africa
(Naidoo and Schutte, 1999, p. 90). "Drop-in" computer labs can be
provided for on-campus students participating in networked education via the
Intranet and computers can be placed in public access areas like the library.
With increased access and extended boundaries
comes an increase in the possibility of abuse, which highlights another
boundary management issue that is ensuring security of the ICT systems in
networked education. Addressing accreditation and certification across national
and academic status barriers is a further prominent issue in boundary
management of networked education.
"…the
medium of print, so long our almost exclusive means for preserving knowledge,
has yielded significant ground to the remarkable storage and retrieval
capacities of the computer; and that, further, this loosening of the keystone
of the modern educational past allows us to glimpse, and demands that we
define, a new educational future no longer constrained and shaped by the
exigencies of print/textbook-based education"
Chou, L.
, McClintock, R. , Moretti, F. , Nix, D. H. (1993).
"…the
widespread use of new technologies in an organisation does constitute a major
cultural change. Furthermore, for such change to be successful, leadership of
the highest quality is required"
Tony
Bates (2000, p. 42)
"…
a successful innovation aims at leadership… if it does not aim at
leadership from the beginning, it is unlikely to be innovative enough, and
therefore unlikely to be capable of establishing itself"
Peter
Drucker (1985)
Conventional tertiary educational management has
struggled with a dichotomy, which led to some describing it as organised
anarchy. The administration is often characterised by bureaucratic,
hierarchical management approaches with a preference for centralisation. In contrast,
the teaching and research functions of academic staff as professionals are
typically more client oriented, less formal and less concerned with hierarchy
with a preference for decentralisation. Networked educational management can
ensure conformity to central principles and standards while it simultaneously
encourages diversity and may contribute to transcending this tension and to
facilitate harmony in the management of tertiary education.
Lack of funding is often touted as a key
stumbling block in the implementation of networked education in conventional
tertiary education. More important though from a management perspective is to
create an enduring vision and a strategic implementation framework for the
effective implementation of technological innovations like networked education.
Berge and Schrum (1998) contends that "The most important function of
institutional leadership may be to create a shared vision that includes
widespread input and support from the faculty and administration, articulates a
clear educational purpose, has validity for stakeholders, and reflects the
broader mission of the institution" (p. 35). "Passive stewardship as
a concept of management … is no longer a useful option when the continued
viability of the institution over which stewardship is being executed is
threatened..[it] demands enlightened, innovative, and aggressive
leadership" (Karol and Ginsburg, 1980, p. 246).
The extensive management and wider implications
for a conventional tertiary educational institute when implementing networked
education might further be pointing to the emergence of a new kind of
educational institute. Networked educational management needs to occur on all
levels of an institute that seriously engages in networked education. It
follows that the kind of institute that fully adopts networked education will
display fundamentally different characteristics than that of a conventional
tertiary educational institute. In terms of an overall organisational
structure it seems possible therefore that networked educational institutes
might emerge which will actualise networked education and use networked
educational management to its fullest extent.
"There
is no alternative but to face the inevitability of a profound impact of new
technology on teaching and learning and to work to establish a rich educational
environment within that framework…"
Rita
Johnston (1997, p. 120)
"In a time of drastic change it is the learners who
survive;
the ‘learned’ find themselves fully equipped
to live in a world that no longer exists"
Eric
Hoffer
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