Technological
Innovation and Management Strategies for Higher Education in Africa:
Harmonizing
Reality and Idealism
Dr Philip Uys
PhD
University
of Botswana, Private Bag UB 0022, Gaborone, Botswana
Deputy
Director: Educational Technology
Tel: +267- 3552799 Fax: +267- 302 884
E-mail:
uyspm@mopipi.ub.bw or philip.uys@globe-online.com
http://www.globe-online.com/philip.uys
(Formerly Senior Lecturer and Director: hydi Educational
New Media Centre
Massey University at Wellington, New Zealand)
Dr Paul
Nleya
PhD
University
of Botswana, Private Bag UB 0022, Gaborone, Botswana
Head
of Department: Educational Technology
Tel: +267- 3552213 Fax: +267- 302 884
E-mail:
nleyapt@mopipi.ub.bw
Mr G.B Molelu
MEd
University
of Botswana, Private Bag UB 0022, Gaborone, Botswana
Manager:
Educational Technology
Tel: +267- 3552212 Fax: +267- 302 884
E-mail:
molelugb@mopipi.ub.bw
Invitation
If you need assistance in the strategic implementation of
eLearning (networked education/distributed learning) in your organisation, you
are welcome to contact philip.uys@globe-online.com to discuss your needs.
Other On-line
Papers
|
This paper provides some
background on the
"LASO (Leadership,
Academic & Student Ownership and Readiness) Model for Technological Transformation
in Tertiary Education" created by Dr Philip Uys in 2001.
ABSTRACT
This paper analyses and suggests possible
technological innovation strategies in tertiary educational institutions in
Africa. It is based on aspects of Dr Philip Uys' doctorate research and a
five-year study of implementing eLearning in institutions of higher learning in
Botswana, South Africa and Australasia. Massey University in New Zealand and the
Cape Technikon in South Africa are used as the primary case studies with
reference to recent technological developments at the University of Botswana.
The findings
reported in the paper are examined in the context of tertiary education in
Africa. The paper then suggests appropriate approaches for technological
innovation of tertiary education in Africa. The paper further describes
management issues in the implementation of eLearning with particular reference
to its usage in tertiary education abroad and in Africa.
The major findings of the paper suggest
that the eLearning needs to be implemented within a strategically developed
framework based on a clear and unified vision and a central educational
rationale. These findings also suggest an emphasis on the maximization of
connectivity as the
fundamental contribution of eLearning to the teaching and learning process.
They further highlight the importance of
using a combination of strategies; top-down, bottom-up and inside-out
strategies during the diffusion process to attain coherence, collegiality and
ownership. They also stress that the process of technological transformation is
not a smooth translation process but one of dislocations, dilemmas and
uncertainties and that it is an art to effect change and sustainable
technological transformation since people are central to this transformation
process. The implications are that institutions and individuals in Africa and
internationally who are committed to the appropriate use of eLearning need to
be life-long learners themselves.
Introduction
The pursuit of technological transformation in higher
education has recently become widespread in Africa with the extensive
pervasiveness of global networks like the Internet. The current focus of
technological transformation in education seems to be centred on the use of the
Internet and intranets that is also referred to as eLearning. This paper therefore deals with eLearning as
a type and also a central focal point of modern technological transformation in
education, which has enormous potential to provide new connectivity and access
for Africa internally, and also to the rest of the world.
The ideal is for Africa to grow its own best practice models
for eLearning through creative grassroots initiatives, imaginative
improvisation and contextualising of best practice models from elsewhere. The
realities of Africa need to be addressed if the ideals of using eLearning in
teaching and learning are to be realised within the framework of the
technological transformation of higher and tertiary education in Africa.
Technological transformation in general and eLearning in
particular has major systemic implications and needs to be carefully managed as
Drucker (1998, p. 100) points out:
"… as soon as a company takes the first tentative steps from data
to information, its decision processes, management structure, and even the way
it gets its work done begin to be transformed." Attempts to introduce any significant reform will impact on
all of its sub-systems. Bates (2000:196) contends that, "…using technology
to extend the campus on a global basis will affect all aspects of a university
or college, but particularly administrative systems". Fullan (1991:349)
refers to the necessity of looking at innovations within the framework of
institutional development. The systemic nature of transformation related to the
wide and effective use of eLearning, calls for a managed process to introduce
this innovation in higher education in Africa.
Thomas, Carswell, Price and Petre (1998) argue for a
transformation of practices (both teaching and administrative) in order to take
advantage of technology so as to provide needed functions, rather than
superficial translation of existing practices. Bates (1999) argues that the
introduction of eLearning will prompt "…a thorough re-examination of the
core practices of an organization, whether advertising, or registration, or
design and delivery of materials, or student support or assessment of students,
in order to arrive at the most effective way of providing these services in a
networked, multimedia environment."
Managing change in general and in higher education in
particular is however problematic and it is therefore necessary, as Fullan
(1991:350) suggests, "… that we explicitly think and worry about the
change process" in educational reform.
This paper includes some of the key aspects of the doctorate
research conducted by Dr Uys from 1995 to 2000 (Uys, 2000) and contextualises
it within higher education in Africa. It is primarily based on the action
research findings from Massey University, New Zealand in implementing eLearning
since September 1995, a five-month consultancy conducted in 2000 at the Cape
Technikon, South Africa to initiate the wide implementation of eLearning, and
on the progress of the UBel (University of Botswana eLearning) Initiative since
early 2001 to transform teaching and learning at the University of Botswana
through eLearning.
Perspectives on
the potential of eLearning to enhance tertiary education
In Africa there is a growing
awareness and commitment to prepare students for effective participation in the
emerging global knowledge economy. eLearning can be used in this regard to
assist students to acquire skills and familiarity of the tools of the knowledge
economy while studying. eLearning also has the potential to create
continental and other international networks and links utilising the
connectivity of eLearning.
In
the context of a dynamic workforce through large staff turnover in Africa and
the effects of HIV/AIDS, eLearning can also be used to create repositories of
the intellectual and human capital in nations and in particular within tertiary
educational institutions.
eLearning is further seen as having the potential to increase the success rate of students through more formative feedback, repetition, access to wider materials and contact with other students and teachers who can provide additional support.
eLearning can thus increase the support and communication between teachers and
learners both locally and abroad. At the University of Botswana eLearning is
targeted towards the facilitation of more student-oriented, active,
open and life-long learning approaches based on constructivism.
eLearning can also provide
new levels of flexibility in learning and teaching with students studying at their own pace, place, time and preferred ways of navigation. ELearning can also be used to transcend geographical distances more effectively and it is also seen as a key strategy to the counter the threat of national and international virtual institutes seizing traditional student markets. If managed well, eLearning can also
increase
access to education.
In Africa in particular, the wide
implementation of eLearning can be leveraged to create a demand for more
sustainable and stable information and communication technologies (ICT) such as
wide area and local area computer networks, which is a pre-requisite for
user-acceptance and wider support by stakeholders.
Technologically based education (eLearning) is further seen
by some as a way to address the increase in the world demand for tertiary
education. Daniel (1998:12) states that "one new university per week is
required to keep pace with world population growth but the resources necessary
are not available. Higher education must develop more cost-effective methods so
that public resources can be focussed on schools and youth training".
Bates (1999) concurs that by using technology for teaching universities can
serve the public more cost-effectively and in particular can prepare students
better for a technologically based society. In view of growing globalisation
and transnational exchanges in many fields, scholars like Marquardt, (1996:3)
and Evans and Nation (1993:7) have indicated that in "… these circumstances
politicians, policy-makers and citizens are making demands upon education
systems to reform. Open learning and distance education are at the forefront of
educational responses to the changes that are taking place locally, regionally,
nationally and internationally".
Background to
technological transformation and change management strategies in tertiary and
higher education
A few aspects of technological transformation, which stood
out at Massey University, Cape Technikon and in recent months at the University
of Botswana are referred to below within the framework of the literature on
technological innovation in education and the management of the change process.
There is no neatly formulated theory of generic change
(Goodman and Kurke, 1982). Cannon (1986) further points to the absence of a
general theory of educational development and notes that educational developers
therefore draw on theories from other disciplines to inform their educational
practice.
Tertiary educational institutes in general are very
conservative and have been highly resistant to change and reform over the
centuries (Evans and Franz, 1998 April; Richardson, 1979). Educational
institutions in general "…which exist to open minds and challenge
established doctrine, are themselves extremely resistant to change"
(Robbins and Barnwell, 1998). Higher education can be described as largely
bureaucratic and "…bureaucracies by definition resist change…"
(Tapscott, 1996:36).
Using both
top-down and bottom-up strategies with referenced to inside-out dimensions
The concepts
"top-down" and "strategic" need to be interchangeable
concepts for diffusion to be effective.
Technological innovation has often been implemented as an isolated,
bottom-up initiative of academic staff for efficiency purposes. In this
scenario the wider systems within tertiary education are often not considered
and neither affected by the innovation. The management of an institute may thus
feel justified in disregarding the innovation. Systems theory calls for an
integrated approach to technological innovation: "a system is a whole that
cannot be taken apart without loss of its essential characteristics, and hence
must be studied as a whole" (Ackhoff, 1972:40).
At Massey
University the president was the sponsor of the project but the project was not
viewed as being of strategic importance, which led to limited diffusion. At
both Massey University and Cape Technikon however the level of resources made
available would not have been possible without senior management and middle
management support. Furthermore when typical political problems like irrational
resistance to change were encountered, senior management was able to step in
and direct matters.
At Cape Technikon
where the initiative was regarded as one of strategic importance, the top-down
strategies which included the creation of a widely owned strategic plan that
included a clear and unified vision, having the vice-rector as sponsor and a
task group with wide and senior representation as a sub-committee of Senate. Furthermore
a high level summit on eLearning was held, an extensive business plan was
developed which was approved by the finance committee of Council, a
presentation to Council was made and fortnightly input was provided at
rectorate meetings. This created a strong top-down impetus and the creation of
a reward structure by means of a central fund that encouraged participation,
which confirmed the view of Berge and Schrum (1998:35) that the key to success
of campus initiatives in technology-enhanced learning and distance education is
the support of campus leaders. This further correlates with Drucker's (1985) assertion that a successful
innovation should aim at leadership from the beginning in order to be
innovative enough and capable of establishing itself.
Running regular workshops on relevant aspects for academic
staff members was an effective bottom up strategy at both Massey University and
Cape Technikon. At Cape Technikon the bottom up strategies further included
using pilots to create successful role models in each faculty, aggressively
extending the library holdings on eLearning, distributing possible research
topics in eLearning to academic staff, holding an eLearning seminar week,
running information sessions in each faculty and having a project team with
wide representation. Furthermore a centre for eLearning was established, an
acronym and slogan competition for the project was held, regular news items
appeared in the campus newspaper and in the Alumni and Student publications, a
library exhibition on eLearning was organised, departmental meetings on
e-learning was encouraged, eLearning was linked to other thrusts within the
organisation, and extensive conferencing occurred on an individual level with
interested academic staff members. These strategies led for example to an
overwhelming response of 40 proposals for pilot projects.
In educational reform in particular the reward systems need
to be tied to engagement with the processes that facilitate the desired reform.
To enable the wide technological transformation of higher education, it needs
to be stated as a strategic objective and direction, and the reward systems
then need to be tied to its implementation (Munitz, 1997). The institute's
reward systems should encourage academic staff and students to become and
remain involved in eLearning if it desires to implement technology based
education widely within the institute. Marquardt (1996:97) contends that
"one of the most powerful management principles in the world is 'That
which get rewarded gets done' ".
A top-down innovation process is therefore important. Drucker
(1985) points to the importance of a top-down process for a successful
innovation aims at leadership. He believes that if it does not aim at
leadership right from the outset, it is unlikely to be innovative enough, and
therefore unlikely to be capable of establishing itself. This statement is made
within the context of the business world, but with the increasing competitive
nature of the educational milieu this assertion is becoming more relevant for
higher education.
An appropriate change model for technological infusion will also include inside-out strategies (Earl, 1989). The inside-out strategies attempts to understand perception, attitudes and behaviours of students, academic staff, project teams, processes and procedures in the University and addresses realities
to support technological transformation. Middle management, that is heads of academic
and administrative departments, can be a key player in inside-out strategies.
Middle management played an important role in controlling resources - in some
cases in a positive way and in other cases in restricting support. The key inside-out strategy at Cape
Technikon however was created when bottom-up and top-down strategies converged
at faculty level in the workgroups that were established under the leadership
of the deans in each faculty and chaired by an enthusiastic and capable
academic. Each faculty workgroup consists of keen academic staff members and
further with wide representation including administration, the information
technology group and the Centre for eLearning.
A combination of top-down, bottom-up and inside-out processes
seems possible in any tertiary institution that has ideals to be a true
learning organisation. Marquardt (1996:218) contends in the context of the
learning organisation that "…it is possible for any member to be an
awareness-enhancing agent or an advocate for new competence development. In
this way, both top-down and bottom-up initiatives are made possible". Gunn
(1998:142) asserts that
An effective technology
strategy works in both directions. From the top down, it is articulated through
institutional objectives, sensitive to existing culture, constraints, strengths
and weaknesses, and presented as a coherent, achievable set of goals with
appropriate incentives and rewards. It must also move from the bottom-up where
knowledge of teaching strategies, learning contexts and disciplinary expertise
can be translated into action plans geared to achievement of institutional
strategic objectives and so creating a sense of ownership at all levels of the
institution.
The findings in these cases therefore suggests that Rogers'
diffusion of innovation theory, when the innovation emerges from outside of
senior management, needs to be augmented with a top-down component that
includes both senior and middle management in order to accomplish effective
diffusion of technology based education. This is a central finding of Dr Uys’s
doctorate research and the resultant LASO (Leadership, Academic &
Student Ownership and Readiness) Model for Technological Transformation in
Tertiary Education that he developed (Uys, 2001), which includes the
necessary top-down, bottom-up and inside-out dimensions. The LASO model (see
figure below) also attempts to address the wider context in which this
transformation would take place within
the "Strategic Framework" namely the external technological
and socio-economic environment.
Pedagogical rationale and ownership by
academic staff
It is vital that educators and a solid educational rationale
drive the technological transformation of higher education so as to ensure
ownership by academic staff as well as sound educational quality in eLearning
(Willmot and McLean, 1994; Caladine, 1993). The structures supporting
technology-based education have to ensure an educational focus and pre-eminence
of educational principles rather than administrative desires or technical
possibilities. Caladine (1993:7), who reviewed the literature on non-traditional
modes of delivery in higher education using state-of-the-art technologies,
indicates that the extensive use of ICT in education "...poses previously
unencountered problems in pedagogy and andragogy". Bates (1992:265)
contends that "… technological decisions need to be preceded by policy and
educational decisions...". This also highlights the importance of
following bottom-up and more organic approaches during technological
transformation in higher education.
Tillema (1995) considers engaging academics in the reform
process as one of the two significant management issues to address in
educational reform and in education in general. He asserts that reform has to
be based on the development of 'learning communities'. That means that the
actual process of reform must engage academics in local communities of
discourse about their educational practices. Tillema further points out that
historical studies, based largely on experience in schools, show that 'top
down' attempts to achieve educational reform have failed, and suggests that
they will be doomed to failure until they 'confront the cultural and
pedagogical traditions and beliefs that underlie current practices and
organizational arrangements' (Goodman 1995:2). In technological transformation
in higher education, it therefore seems necessary to address the concerns and
perceptions of academic staff in the light of the need for changing their
attitudes and to ensuring ownership by academic staff (Evans and Franz, 1998
April; Taylor, Lopez and Quadrelli, 1996).
Ownership of the technological transformation by academic
staff is critical as Bates (1984:227) contends that "… the introduction of
new technology in distance education requires major changes in professional
roles". Bates (1984) points to the need for specialised roles and the need
for academics to gain the skills and knowledge for effective use of the new
technologies, and the requirement for extensive training. These aspects would
be amplified when managing the transformation of higher education through
technology with its ICT base and range of technical options. Mason (1998:157)
asserts that the new technologies in global education point to "… a new
role for the teacher, for the student and for course material. It centres on
the construction of knowledge by the student... a teacher as facilitator…
information is no longer something to organise, transmit and memorise, but
something to work with, think with, discuss, negotiate and debate with
partners".
Academic staff may also act as the content experts in a
multi-disciplinary course development team. (Holmberg, 1995:135) contends that
"…the various tasks are divided between a group of highly specialized team
members, among them subject specialists, specialists in instructional design,
media, technical production etc. and editors". Paquettee,
Ricciardi-Rigault, Paquin, Liegeois and Bleicher (1996, June) describe the team
roles in terms of "five actor categories", namely learner, trainer,
content-expert, manager and designer. Katz and Tushman (1997:331) further
highlighted the importance of the role of gatekeepers in the "… effective
transfer and utilization of external technology and information".
Gatekeepers can be defined as key individual technologists who have a strong
connection to both external sources of information and internal colleagues.
Ensuring ownership by academic staff was found to be
essential in the diffusion of eLearning at Massey and Cape Technikon. Strategies such as one-to-one and small group
discussions, demonstrations, academic involvement in decision-making wherever
possible and explanation of the benefits of eLearning were used to ensure academic ownership.
In order to ensure ownership by academic staff as well as
sound educational quality in eLearning, it was important at both Massey
University at Wellington and Cape Technikon for educators and educational
principles to drive the technological transformation. This confirms similar
views held by Szabo et al. (1997),
Willmot and McLean (1994), Caladine (1993) and Tillema (1995).
The extensive interest in the workshops that the writer
conducted regarding eLearning indicates
that staff development can be used as an important strategy to advance the
transformation of higher education through technology among academic staff.
The benefits and advantages of technology based education for
the institute, teachers and students were consistently highlighted in these two
cases in order to gain the positive interest of administrative managers and
academic staff in the technological transformation of higher education. At the
same time specific issues relating to eLearning were identified and strategies to address these were developed as
part of the strategic plan. The issues of intellectual property (Johnston and
Challis, 1994) and copyright (Barnard, 1997; McCullagh, 1995 September) in
particular are amplified in eLearning
where copying and replicating materials are alarmingly easy. This issue
is further complicated by the notion of instructional design through teams. A
model of shared ownership can be explored where the institute retains the right
to use the materials if members of the course development team should leave,
and where staff have the right to use the materials developed by the team in
their new environment.
Affecting change through development teams
The specialized skills needed to develop technology based
learning materials further point to the rationale for using development teams.
Bates (1993:232) asserts that producing good quality technology based learning
materials "…will require people who can combine good pedagogic practice
with an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of different media and
technologies". Garrison (1989:98&117) points to "…course design
teams… as the accepted model in distance education" and that the British
Open University uses course development teams extensively. Holmberg (1995:98)
confirms the predominant course-team model in distance education and that the
main advantage of this model is that it operates to high professional
standards. Garrison however also indicates that in distance education this
model is not always considered "…feasible or appropriate for all distance
education enterprises". Holmberg (1995:135) described the drawbacks of the
team model as impeding personal approaches and also dealing with knowledge as a
finished product instead of a complex process of "knowledge under
development".
At both Massey University and Cape Technikon the use of a
development team for eLearning was effective in operationalising the strategic
directives which included the development of eLearning materials. The following
roles were used at both Massey University and Cape Technikon: a sponsor,
project manager, content provider, creative director / graphic designer,
computer specialist, instructional designer, editor and media developer.
At Cape Technikon the team was extended to include a business
manager, project secretary, IT representative, library representative and
representative from administration and the six chairpersons of the Faculty
eLearning Workgroups. The role of each team member at Cape Technikon to be a
gatekeeper was emphasized.
During the development process at Cape Technikon students
were used to test and provide feedback on the materials. The student
representative role however could be included on the team to be consistent with
the central role that students play in eLearning. The student representative
role can provide essential feedback during the development process and
contribute to the internal quality assurance process. At the University of
Botswana, a member of the Students Representative Council (SRC) serves on the
UBel Team.
The ragged
contour of the S-curve
Innovation diffusion theory (Rogers, 1995) provides a general
explanation for the manner in which new entities and ideas like eLearning over
time, disseminate through social systems, in this case higher education. Rogers
reviewed studies of diffusion of innovations from many technological contexts
and forwarded a model for adoption of innovations describing key roles and
behaviours in the adoption. Innovation diffusion theory is essentially a
bottom-up approach based on individual responses. Roger's diffusion of
innovation curve can be used as a starting point to depict technological
transformation in higher education. Initially there is a take-off stage (that
is introduction) during which an innovation is introduced in a social system.
An entrepreneurial group called the innovators often then adopts it. During the
next phase of maturation the "early adopters", who are change agents
or opinion leaders among the social system, will enter the process thereby
legitimising the innovation and opening the potential for adoption to all
members of the system. The final saturation stage in an innovation's adoption
is characterised by widespread adoption. The innovation saturates the social
system and growth tapers off. This process can be plotted as an S-shaped growth
curve.
Innovation in higher education – as with most innovations -
takes place within the context of the organizational and management structures.
According to Daft (1989:274) "... organic organizations encourage a
bottom-up innovation process" which is seen as typical for technological
innovation. This position aligns itself with Roger's diffusion theory that also
proposes a bottom-up approach when the innovation starts from outside
management. Daft (1989:274) however also indicates that administrative
innovations follow a top-down direction of change within a mechanistic
management structure. Daft (1989:570) observes that "… the trend over the
last thirty years has been toward more organic structures" which he partly
attributes to "… greater environmental uncertainty and nonroutine
technologies". In contrast, it seems that conventional management of
tertiary education does not provide the required organic structures that foster
innovation. Fullan (1991:349) refers to this dilemma as the tension of "…
combining individual and institutional development..." and the necessity
of having both in tandem for successful educational change.
The experience of pursuing technological transformation at
both Massey University at Wellington and Cape Technikon does not confirm the
smooth contours of Roger's diffusion of innovation curve. The various barriers
that were encountered (both internally and externally), the uncontrollable
events that negatively impacted on the implementation like key staff being
allocated work with a higher priority, mistakes made and some fruitless
experiments all point to a more ragged contour of the innovation curve.
Technological transformation at Massey University and Cape
Technikon proved to be complex within its systemic dimensions and required a
high level of determination by all involved and high standards of teamwork.
A distributed
implementation and support structure
Bates (2000) suggests a distributed organisational structure
for the support of eLearning. His model includes a fairly large professional
centre while each faculty (or school) or large department will have a small
flexible unit of technical support and generalist educational technology
support. The centre will operate on a project management model with many of its
staff seconded to work in the faculties on a continuing basis while the units
will provide immediate support and find appropriate support from the centre for
bigger projects. Szabo, Anderson and Fuchs (1997) who reported on technological
transformation in higher education at the University of Alberta, Canada
suggests a similar approach:
There are two major intended
goals of TIES [Training, Infrastructure and Empowerment System]. The first is
that the chief academic officers identify a vision for alternative delivery
systems of instruction for the university, publish that vision widely, and
demonstrate their commitment to it in a clear and convincing fashion. Secondly,
departments within the university create leadership task forces to interpret
the vision for their unit and prepare colleagues to implement the shared
vision.
At Cape Technikon the diffusion has been sustained through
the use of a distributed implementation structure. A Centre for eLearning was
established to provide central support and to coordinate the progress of the
project. The task team on eLearning of Senate furthermore creates
institute-wide policies. Linked to the
central structure are workgroups within each faculty that includes a
representative from the Centre for eLearning.
At the University of Botswana a similar satellite structure
is being planned. The UBel Team already has representatives from every faculty
as the starting point for such a distributed approach. This structure seems
very promising and confirms the suggestions by Bates (2000) and Szabo, Anderson
and Fuchs (1997) above.
Technological
transformation in higher education in Botswana and Africa
The
Information Age demands transformational initiatives. There are however many
aspects of the socio-economic and technological environment taken for granted
in developed countries that need to be explicitly addressed in countries in
Africa including Botswana.
Some
factors are clearly of a common nature like the need to address stakeholders’
interest and government policy. These factors are critical in Africa where
there is a high sense of community and where social factors play a key role in
sanctioning of strategic initiatives and even the allocation of funds. In this
regard Botswana has an international reputation for being relatively neutral in
its policy-making. Government policy however does impact greatly on strategic
initiatives such as the technological transformation of universities and often
determines the parameters of such initiatives through laws, regulations, the
allocation of funds and the support and guidance of its various ministries.
However,
it has been noted that the lack of professionals trained to initiate and
support new infusion of ICT has been the major factor militating against the
effective adoption and utilization in developing countries in Africa and
elsewhere. Educational institutions in Africa, especially at the tertiary
level, play one of the key roles in providing the needed intellectual resources
for their societies. Ruohonen and Adelakun (1998) have noted that many of the
organization, management and development issues as they pertain to ICT
education and infusion are not represented in the curricula of higher education
institutions in developing countries. At the University of Botswana it is the Department of Educational
Technology (DET) in the Faculty of Education, which carries this task in
relation to Educational Technology courses being offered to Education Students.
The DET is developing academic programmes to be launched soon.
Development of professionals in
the effective and appropriate use of educational technologies is carried out at
the University of Botswana by The Educational Technology unit in the Centre for
Academic Development (CAD), supported by the Teaching and Learning Unit which
focuses on the transformation to a student-oriented learning environment. The
Educational Technology unit has been charged with the responsibility for the
technological transformation at the University of Botswana. A major initiative
of this unit is the launching of a University-wide eLearning initiative (UBel)
that will be phased in with consideration to the above constraints. A needs
assessment is being implemented to identify the gaps by exploring and adapting
the eLearning programme to the complex pedagogic and cultural environment in
which staff work at the University of Botswana.
The Deputy Directorate of Affiliated
Institutions is yet another component of CAD and is responsible for the
accreditation of affiliated tertiary institutions countrywide. This deputy
directorate acts as a critical channel and agent to diffuse eLearning into the
12 affiliated institutions of the University of Botswana.
Ojo
and Awuah (1998) have alleged that several multi-faceted challenges exist that
militate against the effective diffusion and adoption of ICT in developing
countries. They have categorized these as being operational, contextual and
strategic by nature. Jain (2001) has also alluded to the above categorization
of operational, contextual and strategy constraints. The operational
pertain to the resources needed before using ICT (i.e. human resources,
political will, sufficient communication structure, finance, adequate
implementation of ICT projects etc). Contextual constraints relate to
issues such as model mismatch. For example, ICT
facilities used to solve some problem in the developed world might not
necessarily be compatible with the context in the developing world. The Strategic
constraints refer to notions such as national policies, mission statements and
values. The two studies conducted in Botswana, Ojo and Awuah (1998) and Jain
(2001) concluded that the above constraints needed to be carefully considered
in order to initiate effective adoption and utilization of ICT in developing
countries. The authors have noted that these constraints were not peculiar to
Botswana, but that they could be generalized to the different contexts in the
developing countries in Africa and elsewhere.
Gibson
(1998) has also observed that “… the adoption of a novel technology requires
new labour skills that are usually not found in Less Developed Countries
(LDCs). This tends to confirm common perceptions that the developing countries
encounter problems with ICT because of their local environment/traditional
culture, affordability, improper/insufficient training and
improper/insufficient infrastructure and educational curriculum.
An
inadequate telecommunications infrastructure will hamper the strategic
implementation of eLearning as it is based on ICT. Limited bandwidth due to
either cost factors or the scarcity of modern equipment has a negative affect
on the potential use of ICT and on user acceptance of the new technologies. The
lack of reliable power supply in parts of countries as is the case in Botswana
further creates a necessity for special interventions to ensure that an
adequate platform for eLearning is in place.
The privatisation of telecommunication is an imperative in countries
like Botswana where a monopoly contributes to the high cost of Internet
bandwidth and access and hinders the necessary growth in the provision of
quality services in the telecommunication industry.
In
Botswana the education sector competes for the limited resources with the other
equally deserving sectors of the economy like health and the development. The
continued growth of eLearning may be considered in some circles as not topping
the priority list of those in control of the national purse. Like in most
Africa countries there is still a need to provide basic educational facilities
in most parts of the country like building adequate class rooms in schools and
also to reduce the student: teacher ratio which in 1993 was 1:45 in primary and
1:35 in secondary schools (Botswana Ministry of Education, 1993) to acceptable
levels for effective learning. These challenges are amplified in developing
countries through the notion of “massification of education” as governments
demand and work to ensure higher participation in all levels of education.
The University of Botswana has
been fortunate in many respects regarding the application and implementation of
educational technology into the curriculum and using such technology to expand
access. The university has a very robust technology infrastructure. Every staff
has a Pentium computer, printer or access to a printer, access to the Internet
and e-mail with power minimal failures and network shutdowns. A new library addition
has recently been completed and will make available 800 new student
workstations to create a technology rich learning environment.
The challenge to institutions
in Africa, despite these several constraints identified, is for the leadership
at the tertiary level to continue to develop strategic models that are
compatible with their context and visions, and implementing these diligently.
There is every opportunity for institutions to create educational environments
that promote self-directed learners who are life long learners in a global
village. There is research evidence that a mixed mode approach in eLearning
rewards best results. Croft (1995) has cautioned that “ … just because we put a PC on everyone’s desk, we should not
automatically assume we have solved the challenge of global communication”.
Developing countries in Africa would also benefit from collective experience
and the sharing of scarce resources in diffusion and adoption of ICT in
education and training.
Conclusion
There are many aspects of the socio-economic and technological
environment taken for granted in developed countries that need to be explicitly
addressed during technological transformation in Botswana and the rest of
Africa. These include among other things inadequate telecommunications
infrastructure, lack of reliable power supply, the education sector competing
for limited resources, a need to provide basic educational facilities, and
reducing the student: teacher ratio to acceptable levels for effective
learning. Many improvisations and special interventions are required and will
need to be developed to address these very real issues.
Technological innovations like eLearning need further to be
implemented within a strategically developed framework based on a clear and
shared vision and a central educational rationale. The several multi-faceted challenges that exist and militate against the
effective diffusion and adoption of ICT in developing countries should be taken
into consideration. These have been categorized as being operational,
contextual and strategy by nature and have been dealt with in the paper with
the intention of adapting and diffusing ICT innovations to their optimum
potential at the tertiary level in Africa.
The management of technological innovation or infusion needs
to utilize a combination of strategies; top-down, bottom-up and inside-out
strategies during the diffusion process to attain coherence, collegiality and
ownership. The process of technological transformation is complex with many
dislocations, dilemmas and uncertainties. It is an art to effect change and
sustainable technological transformation since people are central to
this transformation process. The LASO Model (Uys, 2001) can act as a guiding
framework for the technological transformation of tertiary institutions in
Africa.
Naidoo and Schutte (1999:90) point to the need for leadership
in the process of technological transformation in Africa: "If African
countries cannot take advantage of the information revolution and surf this
great wave of technological change, they may be crushed by it… Catching this
wave will require visionary leadership in Africa". The implications are
that institutions and individuals in Africa and internationally who are
committed to the appropriate use of eLearning need to demonstrate new levels of
leadership while at the same time being life-long learners themselves.
"In a time
of drastic change it is the learners who survive;
the 'learned'
find themselves fully equipped
to live in a
world that no longer exists"
Eric Hoffer
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